Organizational Behavior, Version 1.1
Bauer & Erdogan
FWK Test Item File
Chapter 5
TRUE/FALSE
1. Motivation is a function of the interaction between performance, ability and environment.
(False)
2. Job security is an example of Maslow’s safety needs.
(True)
3. Alderfer’s existence needs correspond to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs.
(True)
4. The frustration-regression hypothesis offered by Alderfer suggests individuals frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one need regress to another.
(True)
5. Salary is a motivator in Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
(False)
6. Hygiene factors are part of the context of the job.
(True)
7. The absence of hygiene factors in the work environment leads to worker dissatisfaction.
(True)
8. Individuals with a high need for achievement may neglect managerial activities like coaching as a waste of time.
(True)
9. A high need for power is always a destructive element in the workplace.
(False)
10. Process-based theories view motivation as a rational process.
(True)
11. One way to deal with perceived inequity is to decrease your own inputs.
(True)
12. Equity theory suggests that those perceiving inequity can react to the situation by having the referent decrease inputs.
(False)
13. Over-rewarded individuals experience a great deal of guilt and substantially increase their effort to restore their feelings of equity.
(False)
14. Benevolents expect to receive substantial compensation for relatively little input.
(False)
15. You worked really hard on your paper and were very proud to get an A on it. Then you found out that everyone who wrote ten pages or more got an A and now you are upset. You are experiencing high distributive justice.
(False)
16. One effective way of achieving procedural justice is to allow employees a voice in decision making.
(True)
17. High levels of justice create higher levels of employee commitment.
(True)
18. People perceived as fair recognize that what they believe is fair may differ from what others perceive as fair.
(True)
19. Expectancy theory’s instrumentality dimension refers to the degree to which one believes that effort leads to performance.
(False)
20. To influence instrumentality, make sure rewards are seen as desirable.
(False)
21. Expectancy theory is a need-based theory.
(False)
22. The phenomenon of “the folly of rewarding A while hoping for B” suggests that at times, people are rewarded for the wrong kind of behavior.
(True)
23. Reinforcement theory is based on behavioral and operant conditioning.
(True)
24. To reduce the frequency of negative behaviors, remove the rewards that followed those unwanted behaviors.
(True)
25. Extinction is increasing the frequency of desirable behaviors.
(False)
26. Using the extinction approach to get a coworker to quit using inappropriate jokes during his conversations means you ignore the jokes instead of laughing at them.
(True)
27. Giving an employee a sales commission every time he makes a sale is an example of a continuous reinforcement schedule.
(True)
28. Michael needs to discipline one of his employees. Before doing so, he should make sure the punishment he is administering fits the crime.
(True)
29. Motivation is culturally based.
(True)
30. Being among the best paid workers in the retail industry is the sole reason why employees at Trader Joe’s are so motivated.
(False)
MULTIPLE CHOICE
| Opening Case: A Motivating Place to Work: The Case of Zappos |
31. Analyzing Zappos success using Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation would suggest that
a. contextual factors, like being among the best paid employees in the retail
industry, are the only reason for the firm’s success.
b. content factors, like the collaborative atmosphere each employee creates are the only reason for the firm’s success.
c. growth needs, like the autonomy in customer service, are the only reason for the firm’s success.
d. Contextual, content, and growth needs factors all help to contribute to Trader Joe’s success.
(d) Easy/Comprehension
Section I: Need-Based Theories of Motivation
|
32. Maslow’s physiological needs may be satisfied by:
a. food.
b. feeling danger-free.
c. feelings of importance.
d. human bonds.
(a) Easy/Knowledge
33. How could a firm best satisfy an employee’s safety needs?
a. Enroll the employee in a Microsoft Office training course.
b. Provide an employee appreciation luncheon.
c. Develop a weekly employee bowling league.
d. Create a job security clause in the employment contract.
(d) Medium/Application
34. Esteem needs are
a. the need to bond with other human beings.
b. the desire to form lasting attachments.
c. the desire to feel important.
d. the freedom from an uncertain future.
(c) Easy/Knowledge
35. One way to satisfy self-actualization needs is to
a. pursue a master’s degree through a company’s tuition reimbursement program.
b. go out to dinner once a month with coworkers from your department.
c. get a $100 suggestion bonus from your firm for a labor cost saving tip you placed in your department’s suggestion box.
d. receive an employee of the week award.
(a) Difficult/Synthesis
36. Maslow’s theory of motivation suggests
a. employee needs are ordered.
b. employee needs are grouped in three categories.
c. employee needs are divided into motivator and hygiene categories.
d. employee needs are acquired as the result of life experiences.
(a) Easy/Comprehension
37. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory of motivation
a. suggests once basic needs are satisfied, higher order needs become motivators.
b. enjoys strong research support.
c. is a systematic approach managers can utilize to explain the similar needs employees have at any given time and the similar reactions of employees to similar treatment.
d. was developed based on Maslow’s observations of individual employees in a variety of workplace settings.
(a) Difficult/Comprehension
38. The collaborative work environment at Trader Joe’s satisfies which of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
a. safety
b. self-actualization
c. social
d. physiological
(c) Medium/Analysis
39. The simple premise of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory is
a. more than one human need operates at one time.
b. work environment aspects that satisfy an individual are very different than those aspects which dissatisfy an individual.
c. individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences.
d. human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked.
(d) Medium/Comprehension
40. Maslow’s theory of motivation is criticized because
a. research does not support the argument that satisfied needs no longer motivate behavior.
b. its “frustration-regression” hypothesis has no practical implications for the workplace.
c. the research methodology employed does not fully account for the attribution of cause to the individual or the situation.
d. substantial empirical research has indicated little practical application of the theory.
(a) Difficult/Evaluation
41. Maslow’s social needs could be satisfied by
a. receiving an employee of the month award.
b. getting promoted to assistant manager from a supervisor position.
c. attending a department picnic after work.
d. taking a class on Microsoft Office.
(c) Medium/Application
42. Your paycheck could likely satisfy which of the following needs identified by Maslow?
a. physiological needs.
b. esteem needs.
c. safety needs.
d. all of the above.
(d) Medium/Analysis
43. Alderfer’s existence needs correspond to Maslow’s
a. social needs.
b. esteem needs.
c. self-actualization needs.
d. safety needs.
(d) Medium/Synthesis
44. Alderfer’s growth needs correspond to Maslow’s
a. social needs.
b. safety needs.
c. esteem needs.
d. physiological needs.
(c) Medium/Synthesis
45. In comparing Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory to Alderfer’s ERG theory
a. ERG theory recognizes more than one need may operate at one time.
b. Maslow’s theory recognizes more than one need may operate at one time.
c. ERG theory is based upon observations of individuals in clinical settings.
d. Maslow’s theory suggests that individuals who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one need may regress to another one.
(a) Difficult/Evaluation
46. Alderfer’s theory of motivation does all of the following EXCEPT
a. relax the basic assumptions of Maslow’s theory of needs
b. assume needs are hierarchically-based
c. propose a “frustration-regression” hypothesis
d. assume needs are grouped into three categories
(b) Medium/Comprehension
47. According to ERG theory, if an individual is frustrated in the growth opportunities of his job,
a. he may regress only to relatedness needs.
b. he may regress only to existence needs.
c. he may regress to either relatedness or existence needs.
d. he will be motivated by the next higher need in his need hierarchy.
(c) Difficult/Analysis
48. Which of the following is not a hygiene factor in Herzberg’s theory of motivation?
a. working conditions
b. salary
c. company policy
d. recognition
(d) Easy/Knowledge
49. Which of the following is a hygiene factor in Herzberg’s theory of motivation?
a. promotion opportunities.
b. interesting work.
c. salary.
d. achievement.
(c) Easy/Knowledge
50. All of the following are criticisms of Herzberg’s theory of motivation EXCEPT
a. the primary research methodology of the study is flawed.
b. the classification of factors as hygiene or motivator is not simple.
c. pay may have symbolic value as communication that the employee is advancing within the company.
d. the theory suggests that improving the environment only goes so far in motivating employees.
(d) Difficult/Evaluation
51. Which of the following statements is true?
a. A need for achievement can be a destructive element in relationships with colleagues.
b. A high need for affiliation serves as a real advantage in managerial positions especially with regard to conducting performance appraisals.
c. A high need for power is a trait of those successful in the sales area.
d. A need for power can have an altruistic form.
(d) Difficult/Analysis
52. Individuals with a high need for affiliation
a. want to influence others.
b. have a strong need to be successful.
c. desire to make an impact on the organization.
d. want to be accepted by others.
(d) Easy/Comprehension
53. Abdul tends to emphasize harmonious interpersonal relationships, prefers to be with friends, and enjoys family events. Abdul would probably be categorized as being
a. low in need for achievement.
b. high in need for affiliation.
c. high in need for power.
d. low in need for affiliation.
(b) Difficult/Synthesis
54. What job would be best suited for someone with a high need for affiliation?
a. sales
b. teacher
c. engineer
d. entrepreneur
(a) Medium/Comprehension
55. Michele is being considered for a managerial position at Halliburton. She completes a TAT as part of an assessment center exercise for prospective managers. Facilitators will examine the results carefully for their manager choices knowing that
a. individuals high in need for achievement may find it difficult to delegate authority to subordinates.
b. individuals high in need for affiliation are especially effective at providing critical feedback to employees.
c. individuals high in need for power have difficulties disciplining poor performers.
d. individuals high in need for achievement are especially effective at coaching and meeting with subordinates.
(a) Difficult/Evaluation
56. Which of the following is a process based theory of motivation?
a. Alderfer’s ERG theory.
b. Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
c. Skinner’s reinforcement theory.
d. McClelland’s acquired needs theory.
(c) Easy/Comprehension
57. Which of the following need-based theories has received the greatest amount of support?
a. Herzberg’s two-factor theory
b. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
c. Alderfer’s ERG theory
d. McClelland’s acquired needs theory
(d) Easy/Comprehension
Section II: Process-Based Theories
|
58. Chloe and Francois are graphic designers at Highland Lithographics. Both have the same job description. Earlier this month, Chloe found out that Francois makes $12.50 an hour while she makes $11.00. What theory of motivation best explains why Chloe went to her boss to complain about the pay disparity?
a. ERG theory
b. Equity theory
c. Expectancy theory
d. Reinforcement theory
(b) Medium/Comprehension
59. Ramone feels that he was unfairly passed over for a promotion at his firm. How might he deal with the perceived inequity?
a. Have the referent decrease inputs.
b. Maintain current perceptions of the referent’s inputs.
c. Increase his inputs.
d. Increase his outcomes.
(d) Medium/Application
60. All of the following are actions those who perceive inequity can undertake to “balance the scales” EXCEPT
a. steal.
b. begin to arrive at work late.
c. quit.
d. produce higher quality work.
(d) Difficult/Synthesis
61. Research on equity theory suggests
a. those who perceive inequity increase their work performance.
b. those who feel over-rewarded experience little distress over the situation.
c. those who feel over-rewarded experience guilt over the situation.
d. those who perceive inequity encourage their fellow coworkers to work less hard.
(b) Difficult/Analysis
62. Individuals who expect yearly wage increases without exhibiting increased performance may be labeled
a. benevolents.
b. entitleds.
c. equitably insensitive.
d. expectancy sensitive.
(b) Medium/Application
63. Research on procedural justice suggests
a. it is best to exclude employees from commenting on potential changes in company procedures like performance appraisals because they do not understand the decision-making process anyway.
b. it is best to unexpectedly announce department-wide layoffs because when employees suspect changes in their job status are upcoming, they tend to become much less productive.
c. it is best to be consistent in the manner in which employees are disciplined for violating company policy for situations like cell phone usage.
d. it is best to send an announcement of changes to the company benefit package for the next fiscal year without providing explanatory details because employees do not understand the financial implications anyway.
(c) Difficult/Application
64. Interactional justice is
a. the degree to which outcomes received from the organization are perceived to be fair.
b. the degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used to arrive at a decision.
c. the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness and dignity in interpersonal interactions.
d. the belief that high levels of effort will lead to high performance.
(c) Easy/Knowledge
65. Nejah is reading a report on employee justice perception. The article notes all of the following points EXCEPT
a. high levels of justice create higher levels of organizational citizenship.
b. high levels of justice create higher levels of employee commitment to the organization.
c. high levels of justice create higher levels of customer satisfaction.
d. high levels of justice lead to support of unionization.
(d) Medium/Comprehension
66. Joaquin received the Chancellor’s Award and an $8,000 scholarship for a research paper and formal presentation he created. He believes that he worked hard for the paper and the presentation. Joaquin would feel a sense of
a. high interactional justice.
b. high interpersonal justice.
c. high distributive justice.
d. high procedural justice.
(c) Medium/Application
67. If you wanted to be perceived as a fair person, take this piece of advice:
a. “People are selfish, they care only about their own justice level.”
b. “Treat everyone equally when distributing rewards. Differentiation in rewards often lead to unfairness.”
c. “Make your own decisions, you are the boss. Since you are accountable for those decisions, you do not need to waste time listening to everyone’s opinions.”
d. “Think before you speak. Be considerate of others.”
(d) Difficult/Comprehension
68. Michael has two finals, accounting and organizational behavior, on the same day of finals week. Based on expectancy theory, which of the following statements suggest how he should allocate his limited study time?
a. For the previous three OB exams Michael studied for hours and received below average grades. He spent fewer hours studying for accounting and earned above average grades. He therefore decides to focus his efforts equally on OB and accounting.
b. Accounting is Michael’s major, OB is a general business requirement in his academic program. Michael aspires to be a CPA, so he decides to focus his study time on Accounting.
c. Michael is switching to another college for a communication major after this semester. His business courses will not count toward his total credits at the new college. His grades on these exams will not matter, but he decides to focus on his accounting anyway.
d. Michael loved the group work format that his OB instructor used to teach the course and disliked the lecture format utilized by his accounting professor. He decides to focus his attention on OB.
(b) Difficult/Synthesis
69. You work for your college’s annual alumni fund. You have averaged 25 phone calls in a three-hour shift throughout your employment. Your supervisor now demands that you increase that number to 40 calls per three-hour shift. You feel that you do not have the skills or the time to make 40 calls; this is an unrealistic goal. According to expectancy theory, you are experiencing
a. Low expectancy
b. Low instrumentality
c. Low valence
d. Low equity
(a) Difficult/Evaluation
70. Which of the following statements is true about the manner in which managers can influence the perceptions of expectancy theory?
a. Individuals with an internal locus of control and high self-esteem believe there is little connection between their effort and performance so a great deal of feedback is needed to motivate them.
b. Regardless of the performance rating given on a performance evaluation, make certain that everyone gets a small raise annually.
c. Recognize good performance of individuals with cost effective items like coffee mugs and t-shirts.
d. Conduct employee surveys periodically to ascertain what they consider to be rewards for performance and integrate that in some manner into the performance evaluation program.
(d) Medium/Analysis
71. In expectancy theory, valence is
a. the perception that high levels of effort will lead to outcomes of interest like performance.
b. the perception that performance is related to subsequent outcomes such as rewards.
c. the anticipated satisfaction that will result from an outcome.
d. the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity.
(c) Easy/Knowledge
72. To influence instrumentality, managers can
a. ensure that environment facilitates performance.
b. give employees choice over rewards.
c. consistently reward high performers.
d. encourage people to believe their effort makes a difference.
(c) Medium/Application
73. Steve Kerr’s phenomenon, “the folly of rewarding A while hoping for B” is demonstrated by
a. a manager failing to acknowledge an employee who stayed after hours for one week to complete a report for an ill coworker.
b. a manager who fears his top sales person will leave if he criticizes him for being 15 minutes late every day.
c. a manager who promotes a subordinate known for his propensity to argue with his coworkers so that subordinate can be transferred to another department where an individual just retired.
d. rewarding a manager who orders the release of a shipment of manufactured parts full of defects to meet a deadline in spite of the company’s highly advertised quality commitment.
(d) Difficult/Application
74. Negative reinforcement
a. decreases the desired behavior.
b. decreases the frequency of negative behavior.
c. increases the desired behavior.
d. reduces the frequency of undesired behavior.
(c) Easy/Knowledge
75. Positive reinforcement
a. decreases the desired behavior.
b. decreases the frequency of negative behavior.
c. increases the desired behavior.
d. reduces the frequency of undesired behavior.
(c) Easy/Knowledge
76. An example of extinction is
a. nagging an employee to call a customer.
b. suspending an employee for being late three days in a row.
c. praising an employee for a well written report.
d. ignoring a coworker who is telling dirty jokes.
(d) Medium/Comprehension
77. When reinforcers follow all examples of positive behavior you are using a __________ ___________ of reinforcement.
a. variable ratio
b. equity ratio
c. continuous schedule
d. fixed ratio schedule
(c) Medium/Comprehension
78. Praising the employee occasionally when the person shows up on time is an example of __________________ of reinforcement.
a. variable ratio
b. equity ratio
c. continuous schedule
d. fixed ratio schedule
(a) Medium/Application
79. All of the following are tips to make disciplining an employee more effective EXCEPT
a. discipline when you have time.
b. be consistent in your treatment of employees.
c. determine if punishment is the effective way to modify behavior.
d. document behavior.
(a) Medium/Synthesis
80. Which of the following statements is NOT an effective approach to disciplining employees?
a. Carrots can be more effective than sticks.
b. Unfair punishment may not change unwanted behavior.
c. No two employees or incidents are the same, so no two employee should be disciplined the same way.
d. Discipline is not the most effective way for changing behavior in the long term.
(c) Medium/Synthesis
81. The first step of an organizational behavior modification program is
a. evaluate and maintain.
b. identify behavior to be modified.
c. analyze behavior antecedents and outcomes.
d. measure the baseline level.
(b) Easy/Knowledge
82. When organizational behavior modification is used to examine employee absenteeism, which step looks at why employees are absent?
a. Step 5: Evaluate and maintain.
b. Step 1: Identify behavior to modify.
c. Step 3: Analyze behavior antecedents and outcomes.
d. Step 2: Measure the baseline level.
(c) Easy/Comprehension
83. Which of the following is a need based theory of motivation?
a. expectancy theory.
b. ERG theory.
c. reinforcement theory.
d. equity theory.
(b) Easy/Knowledge
Section III: The Role of Ethics and National Culture
|
84. In simulations examining whether reinforcement theory explains ethical behavior, all of the following are findings EXCEPT
a. subjects were less likely to cut kickback payments if there was a threat of punishment.
b. subjects were more likely to continue kickback payments if they made a profit after providing the kickbacks.
c. the perceived likelihood of punishment is a major influence of ethical behavior.
d. the severity of expected punishment was the primary predictor of whether subjects were inclined to behave unethically.
(a) Difficult/Evaluation
85. Research on motivation suggests the following:
a. Ethical behavior is learned behavior.
b. Satisfaction with social needs is a powerful motivator in industrialized countries.
c. Subjects in different cultures do not vary in their distribution of rewards regardless of the subject’s age.
d. Valuing justice and fairness is a distinctive American-only value.
(a) Medium/Comprehension
86. Which of the following summary statements is true regarding motivation theories?
a. Need-based motivation theories use the mental processes of employees to understand employee motivation.
b. Research indicates that what is perceived as fair and unfair is culturally defined.
c. Research indicates that because of the unfairness perceived in their environments, individuals no longer repeat behavior that leads to positive results.
d. Process-based theories suggest managers should identify what employees need and make the work environment a means of satisfying those needs.
(b) Medium/Synthesis
87. Research on motivation in different cultures indicates that
a. high power distance cultures value having a voice in the justice process.
b. Chinese study participants place the highest value on procedural justice.
c. equity is not culture specific; all cultures utilize this method to achieve fairness.
d. in industrialized nations, satisfaction with esteem needs was a more powerful motivator than satisfaction of physiological or security needs.
(d) Medium/Synthesis
| Opening Case: Motivation in Action: The Case of Trader Joe’s |
88. Analyzing Trader Joe’s success using Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation would suggest that
a. contextual factors, like being among the best paid employees in the retail
industry, are the only reason for the firm’s success.
b. content factors, like the collaborative atmosphere in each supermarket, are the only reason for the firm’s success.
c. growth needs, like the autonomy of opening products for customer samples, are the only reason for the firm’s success.
d. Contextual, content, and growth needs factors all help to contribute to Trader Joe’s success.
(d) Difficult/Synthesis
89. Ability is
a. having the resources, information and support one needs to perform well.
b. having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job.
c. the intention of achieving a goal, leading to goal-directed behavior.
d. the function of performance, motivation, and environment.
(b) Easy/Knowledge
90. Which of the following is true about motivation?
a. Being motivated is the same as being a high performer.
b. Motivation is the sole reason why people perform well.
c. Motivation is a key influence over an employee’s performance level.
d. Motivation is usually the most critical factor in a person’s performance.
(c) Medium/Comprehension
91. Motivation is
a. having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job.
b. a function of performance, ability and environment.
c. the intention of achieving a goal, leading to goal-directed behavior.
d. the only key to high performance.
(c) Easy/Knowledge
92. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. Performance is a function of the interaction between motivation, ability and environment.
b. Motivation is a function of the interaction between ability, environment and performance.
c. Ability is a function of the interaction between motivation, performance and environment.
d. Performance is a major influence on motivation, ability and environment.
(a) Easy/Comprehension
FILL IN THE BLANK
93. Job performance is a function of the interaction between a person’s _______, ability, and ___________.
(motivation, environment)
94. Marcus eagerly uses his company’s tuition reimbursement program for an undergraduate degree. Marcus is fulfilling his ____________ need.
(self-actualization)
95. Antonio feels strongly about satisfying his subordinates’ __________needs. Therefore, each time one of his employees does an outstanding job on some project, he calls the entire department together to formally recognize the individual’s accomplishment.
(esteem)
96. For most employees, ___________________satisfies their physiological needs.
(pay)
97. Social needs is to Maslow, as _______________ is to Alderfer.
(relatedness)
98. _______________arranges needs in a hierarchy.
(Maslow’s theory of motivation)
99. Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation suggests factors that are part of the context in which the job is performed are called _______factors.
(hygiene)
100. Herzberg’s _______ factors include company policy, supervision, working conditions, security and salary.
(hygiene)
101. Li Cho is participating in a study in which after looking at a picture, she will write a story describing the person in the picture, what he is doing and why. Li Cho is using a __________ _________ _________ to assess motivation themes.
(Thematic Apperception Test)
102. Under McClelland’s theory, individuals who focus on goals and deadlines have a _________ _____ ___________.
(need for achievement)
103. Clarissa emphasizes frequent harmonious interpersonal relationships. Clarissa has a high _________ _________ ______.
(need for affiliation)
104. ______________ motivation theories see motivation as a rational process.
(Process-based)
105. Mary and Jan are two graphic designers at Master Graphics. They were hired at the same time with the same basic qualifications. Under equity theory, Jan is Mary’s ________ or comparison person.
(referent)
106. In equity theory, an individual’s _______/______ is compared to the same ratio of a referent.
(outcome/input)
107. Nina is experiencing feelings of inequity; she can address the situation by ____________ outcomes.
(increasing)
108. _________ ________ is a personality trait that explains different reactions to inequity.
(Equity sensitivity)
109. Monica was hired as an entry level accountant. She found out that the firm decided to hire her after learning that her mother was also an accountant. Monica likely feels low _________________ justice.
(procedural)
110. ___________ ________ is the degree to which the outcomes received from the organization are perceived to be fair.
(Distributive justice)
111. You just got a promotion, one which you feel you deserve after all your hard work. You perceive high __________ _____________.
(distributive justice)
112. ___________ are those who expect substantial compensation for little input.
(Entitleds)
113. The perception that high levels of effort will lead to performance is called __________.
(expectancy)
114. Mario is making sure that his subordinates view rewards offered by the firm as desirable. Mario is attempting to influence the _________ element of expectancy theory.
(valence)
115. The degree to which employees believe that their performance will result in rewards is called _____________.
(instrumentality)
116. ____________ is based on the work of Ivan Pavlov on behavioral conditioning and B. F. Skinner on operant conditioning.
(Reinforcement theory)
117. The professor is praising the student for an outstanding PowerPoint presentation. The professor is practicing _________ ___________ to get the student to do as well the next time he presents.
(positive reinforcement)
118. The XYZ Corporation just announced a new bonus program where managers can provide “on the spot” bonuses for an exceptional job done that day. XYZ is proposing to offer bonuses on a _____________ _____________ schedule.
(variable ratio)
119. Equity and expectancy theories are examples of ________-based theories of motivation.
(process)
120. ERG theory is to _______ ________ motivation theories as equity theory is to ________ ______ motivation theories.
(need-based, process-based)
121. Of the need-based theories mentioned in the text, _________ ________ __________ theory has received the most support.
(McClelland’s acquired needs)
122. Research suggests that low power distance cultures value __________more than high power/distance cultures.
(voice)
SHORT ANSWERS
123. Describe how motivation determines employee performance.
Job performance is a function of the interaction between a person’s motivation, ability and environment. Motivation, the intention of achieving a goal, helps a person try hard to accomplish a certain task. Motivation, is not, however, sufficient for high performance and not the key reason why people perform well, but is a key influence on performance.
124. Compare and contrast Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to Alderfer’s ERG theory.
Both Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Alderfer’s ERG theory are need-based theories.
Maslow suggests there are five basic human needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization, which are arranged in a hierarchy. As one need is satisfied, the next need in the hierarchy drives behavior.
Alderfer modifies Maslow’s theory by proposing that there are three needs, existence, relatedness and growth. These needs are not arranged hierarchically, but grouped as categories. Consequently Alderfer is proposing that more than one need may operate at any time. In addition, Alderfer proposes a “frustration-regression hypothesis” in his theory. The hypothesis suggests that individuals who are frustrated when trying to satisfy one need may regress to another.
125. List each of the needs in Maslow’s hierarchy and provide an example of how a firm could try to satisfy each.
Physiological needs are those related to food, water, and shelter. A firm could satisfy each of these needs by paying an employee.
Safety needs are satisfied when one is free from danger, pain or uncertainty. Again, pay would be an example of how to satisfy these needs as the paycheck would enable the employee to purchase items to keep him free from danger (a car instead of walking on a busy highway).
Social needs are those of belonging to a group or being loved. Firms could create a golf league, take their employees out for dinner for the holidays or hold summer picnics to satisfy this need.
Esteem needs are those where one desires respect from others and wants to feel important. A program where employees are formally recognized for a job well done, like an “employee of the month” award would satisfy this need.
Self-actualization needs are where an employee desires to be “all he can be.” Offering your employees a tuition reimbursement program would help satisfy this need.
126. Describe how Herzberg’s hygiene and motivator factors differ and give an example of each.
Hygiene factors are part of the context of a workplace. Their presence is often overlooked by an employee, but their absence leads to feelings of dissatisfaction in the employee. For example, if the working conditions are adequate at a place of business (relatively clean, warm and dry), employees tend not to notice. However, if the air conditioning breaks in the summer, employees will complain a great deal about the heat. Other examples of hygiene factors include: company policy, supervision and relationships, salary and security.
Motivators are part of the job’s content and are intrinsic to the job. Examples include: achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibility, and advancement. If these conditions are not found in the job, the worker is somewhat neutral; however, when the conditions are created by a manager, for example, they can motivate an employee to high performance levels.
127. What are some of the key characteristics of individuals identified by a thematic apperception test as high need for achievement? In what occupations do high need for achievement individuals perform well?
Individuals with a high need for achievement meet deadlines, come up with great ideas, and generally aim for success in their jobs. Consequently they find success in jobs such as scientists, entrepreneurs, sales and engineers.
128. You perceive inequity in a situation. Describe reactions that equity theory suggests to alter the perception.
If inequity is perceived, an individual can alter his perceptions of his own or the referent’s inputs and outcomes. For example, you could downplay your own inputs, value them more highly, and distort the other’s inputs or his outcomes. You might also get the referent to increase his inputs. Yet a third alternative is for you to reduce your inputs or increase your outcomes. Finally, you could change your comparison person (the referent) or leave the situation completely.
129. Define distributive, procedural and interactional justice and note how they are related.
Distributive justice is the degree to which the outcomes received from the organization are perceived to be fair. Procedural justice refers to the degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used to arrive at a decision. Finally, interactional justice is the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions. The three concepts interact with each other and together. In short, the three types of justice are providing an opportunity for an employee to receive a fair outcome that was provided based upon a fair decision and awarded to the employee in a respectful, kind manner. Employers benefit from attending to all three types of justice.
130. Describe how research suggests an employee achieves procedural justice.
Research suggests the following ways to achieve procedural justice: provide employees advance notice, allow them a voice in decision making, provide explanations for all decisions, and above all be consistent in the manner in which you treat all employees.
131. According to expectancy theory, what are the three questions individuals ask themselves when evaluating a situation?
Will my effort lead to high performance?
Will performance lead to outcomes?
Do I find outcomes desirable?
132. Name two ways in which managers can influence employees’ expectancy perceptions.
If employees do not believe they have sufficient skills to handle a job, the manager could ensure they are trained.
If employees do not believe the effort leads to performance because of, for example, political behavior in the workplace, the manager must ensure that the tie between the two is clearly established.
Finally, many employees have low self-esteem or external loci of control that make them believe their effort will never make a difference.
133. Name two ways in which managers can influence employees’ instrumentality perceptions.
First, the connection between pay and performance must be made clear. Announcing the rewards such as bonuses and merit pay is a first step to this understanding.
The manager must also make it clear that performance, and only performance, is being rewarded.
134. Name two ways in which managers can influence employees’ valence perceptions.
First, the manager must make sure the rewards are attractive to employees. Therefore, the manager must know employees’ needs, wants and desires. Then the manager must follow up on the information on a regular basis to see if there have been changes. Finally, the manager must ensure that employees have some choice between rewards.
135. What does the phenomenon labeled, “the folly of rewarding A while hoping for B” mean?
The statement means that sometimes people are rewarded for the wrong kind of behavior. For example, a company can make public statements about its high quality products. Pressured to get products to the customers however, they often ship items that lack quality. Managers must be cognizant of the consequences of actions such as these.
136. Name and define each of the four reinforcement methods and provide an example of each.
Positive reinforcement is a method of increasing desired behaviors. An example of this would be to praise an employee for treating a customer nicely during a complaint call by that customer.
Negative reinforcement is also a method for increasing desired behaviors. Here removing unpleasant consequences cause the desired behavior to result. For example, teenagers often clean their rooms simply to have their parents quit nagging them about it.
Extinction is used to decrease the frequency of negative behaviors. When rewards are removed following negative behavior, persistent removal leads to cessation of the behavior. Employees who continually mock their co-workers cease the behavior when these comments are ignored.
Punishment is presenting negative consequences following unwanted behaviors. If you are repeatedly late for work, you could have a disciplinary suspension of three days brought against you.
137. How would a fixed ratio schedule and a variable ratio schedule be used in a workplace?
A fixed ratio schedule is when rewards are provided every set time the right behavior is demonstrated. For example, a salesman may receive a bonus for every tenth sale he makes.
A variable ratio schedule reinforces on a random pattern. For example, a manager may praise his employees on a very infrequent, occasional schedule.
138. List the stages of organization behavior modification.
1. Identify behavior to be modified.
2. Measure the baseline level.
3. Analyze its antecedents and outcomes.
4. Intervene.
5. Evaluate and maintain.
139. Briefly describe how process and need-based theories of motivation are useful to firms.
Need-based theories help a manager identify what people need to be motivated and will help make the work environment a place for satisfying those needs. Maslow’s hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG and McClelland’s acquired needs theories are key in helping to identify such needs.
Process theories look at the mental processes of employees that are key in driving behavior. Equity, expectancy and reinforcement theories are useful in designing reward systems for a firm. Together the two groups of theories help make a workplace productive for firm and employees alike.
140. Describe how reinforcement theory has been successful in explaining ethical behavior.
The theories help managers understand how employees behave unethically. Process theories like reinforcement suggest that people will behave unethically if those unethical behaviors are rewarded. The need-based theories help the manager understand what the basic needs and desires of employees are that drive the behavior.
141. Give an example of how motivation is culturally bound.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one such theory that is culturally bound. Financial satisfaction, for example, is a stronger predictor of overall life satisfaction in developing nations. In contrast, esteem needs are a more powerful motivator for industrialized countries.
142. List two tips a manager could use to make the discipline process more effective.
Consider whether the punishment is the most effective way of modifying the behavior.
Be sure that the punishment fits the crime.
Be consistent in your treatment of employees.
Document the behavior in question.
Be timely in discipline.
ESSSAY
143. Using either Maslow’s hierarchy of needs or Alderfer’s ERG theory, describe why Trader Joe’s employees provide such excellent service to customers.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs presents needs in a ranked order beginning with physiological and then moving upward to safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. The theory suggests that once a need is satisfied, it no longer motivates behavior and the next higher order need becomes the driving force for behavior. Trader Joe’s, as one of the best paying retail organizations in that sector with an average full-time employee income of $40,150 annually, satisfies the physiological and safety needs of its employees. The atmosphere found in the store where employees happily cover for each other when one is missing and enthusiastically serve the needs of the customers, goes a long way to satisfying the social and esteem needs of employees. The quarterly performance evaluations facilitate career opportunities for employees, as does the autonomy afforded by many positions. Finally, the training opportunities provided by Trader Joe’s supports self-actualization. The specific program elements when viewed as a whole demonstrate the manner in which firms can use motivational theories to support employees as well as their own competitive goals.
The same argument can be made for how Alderfer’s model applies to Trader Joe’s. The only changes would be that Alderfer’s existence needs would replace the physiological and safety needs of Maslow; relatedness needs would replace social; and growth needs would replace the esteem and self actualization dimensions.
144. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Alderfer’s ERG theory are need-based theories of motivation. What are some key criticisms of Maslow’s theory and how does Alderfer’s theory modify that of Maslow?
Maslow’s research was done in the clinical setting, which raises questions as to its applicability in the workplace, especially since it lacks empirical support. Further, the model proposes that needs are hierarchically ranked and that as one need is satisfied, the next higher order need becomes the focus of effort. Yet one can observe individuals who, while pursuing a higher order need, seem to stay motivated not only by that need but aspects of the previous one. For example, if an individual were ever so poor that he had no food and was homeless, even after becoming somewhat successful, the fear of a return to homelessness might still drive him to some degree. Consistently, research has not supported the argument that only one need is dominant at any time or that once satisfied, a need is not motivating.
Alderfer’s model addresses some of these concerns, first by offering needs in a categorical framework (existence, relatedness and growth) rather than a hierarchical mode. This representation suggests that more than one need can be motivating at any one time. In addition, Alderfer offers a “frustration-regression” hypothesis in his model, suggesting that if individuals become frustrated in pursuing a specific need, they may regress to another need for motivating behavior. In short, Alderfer suggests that more than one need may be motivating at any time.
145. Herzberg has been strongly criticized for his research finding that salary is a hygiene factor. Describe the nature of hygiene factors and how salary fits this category. What are the implications of this finding for managers in the workplace?
Hygiene factors are ones that are found in the context of the job environment. Herzberg argues, based upon his study, that these factors are those one would expect to have in his environment. For example, the physical environment should be one free from hazards, where it is not too hot or too cold in which to work. The worker, is, in essence, neutral when these environmental factors are as expected. Only when the factors are unexpected and problematic does the employee react and then he expresses dissatisfaction. For example, if the air conditioning in an office is broken during the summer months, sweltering employees will complain, likely very loudly. Herzberg contends that salary fits this profile. Clearly employees expect a certain level of salary, at least minimum wage, only when their pay is not at the level of the market, for example, will they complain about it and begin to pursue other options.
The important implications of Herzberg’s theory are that while managers need to be aware of environmental factors and their improvement, they are not sufficient to motivate an employee. Context factors matter because when they are absent, employees are dissatisfied. The job and its content also must be addressed.
146. McClelland’s acquired needs theory has been assessed in various cultures. Choose a country with whose culture you have some familiarity. Describe some key aspects of the culture and which of the three needs might be most prevalent among residents of the country. Provide a rationale for your suggestions.
Answers will vary. One general example: Latin American cultures tend to focus on close-knit work groups with strong interpersonal interactions between individuals. One professor’s personal experience is that Latin American workers are extremely attuned to each other’s likes and dislikes. Mentioning that you like an individual’s shirt could very likely result in your receipt of a gift box the next day, containing an identical shirt. Clearly these specific examples reflect a need for affiliation orientation.
147. You are a trained expert in interpreting the themes of responses to the TAT. You get the following story based on the respondent’s viewing the TAT picture in your book: Jacqueline is a recent graduate of The University of Michigan, now employed as a marketing specialist at a Fortune 500 firm. She has just completed her first marketing campaign for the firm. The campaign was a major success. She is looking once more at the plaque the vice president of marketing awarded her to commemorate the campaign’s success. Analyze this story to determine the key themes, then indicate which of McClelland’s needs seem most prevalent and what the implications are for managing this employee.
Themes: success: Graduate of major research university, primary force behind outstanding marketing campaign and recipient of plaque commemorating the event.
Goal-oriented: graduate, coordinator of marketing campaign
Feedback-oriented: enjoying plaque received.
The McClelland theme which best describes Jacqueline is need for achievement. The best way to manage Jacqueline is to continue to provide her with situations in which she can create and achieve goals and then provide her the feedback that recognizes the successes achieved. Those high in need for achievement meet deadlines, come up with innovative ideas and achieve success. Managers simply need to support these dimensions.
148. You are the new dean of the college of business administration at a major university. One of the first tasks you have undertaken is a review of the salaries of your non-tenured faculty members. You note that the OB instructor has similar credentials to the marketing instructor, but is paid $5,000 less per year for similar teaching duties. You are also aware that faculty members recently found out salaries of all instructors when the payroll office erroneously sent an email with that information. Knowing equity theory, what reactions to the inequity might you expect, and how would you address them?
Equity theory suggests that two ratios are assessed by an individual: first, a self-assessment ratio comparing one’s input to outcomes. If the outcome is favorable given the input invested, an individual feels equity. That self-assessed ratio is then compared against a similar ratio “mentally” prepared on a referent. Again the comparison leads to feelings of equity or inequity. In this scenario, a comparison of the OB instructor to that of the marketing instructor, all things being equal, is going to make the OB instructor feel inequitably treated by the college.
Knowing the inequity felt by the OB instructor, the dean could pursue a number of different options to address feelings of unfairness in the university system. For example, the dean might attempt to help the OB instructor alter his perception of his own or the referent’s inputs and outcomes. Specifically, the dean could help the OB instructor see that he really did not work as hard on his classes, nor teach them as successfully as he thinks he did (perhaps by providing student evaluation of such). Other options to address the inequity felt include: having the referent increase his inputs, having the OB instructor reduce his inputs or attempt to increase outcomes, change the comparison person (perhaps by comparing himself to another OB instructor) and having the OB instructor leave the university.
149. General Motors, Ford and Daimler Chrysler are closing numerous factories and laying off thousands of employees. Based on the research on procedural justice, what recommendations could you make to the firms to be fair with those individuals?
Again, answers will vary. Some options the auto companies might utilize include providing the laid-off employees with advance notice of the job action, thus providing them an opportunity to prepare themselves for the major life impact. Other options include: allowing employees a voice in decision making, providing full explanations for the need for such job action, and treating all employees in a consistent manner (having a set procedure for determining who will be laid off and not deviating from the plan).
150. Using expectancy theory, describe the thought process a pharmaceutical salesman might go through if his firm has developed a new drug and provides him the option of staying with his previous products or adding the new product to his account.
Expectancy theory suggests that three factors should be examined. First is the notion of expectancy itself. Will my effort lead to high performance? In this case, does the salesman believe he can sell the new drug? Will his current selling techniques allow him to maintain his high performance level?
The second issue to be considered is instrumentality. Instrumentality is the degree to which the person believes performance is related to rewards. Will the sale of this drug produce good commissions?
Finally, the notion of valence must be assessed. Is the size of the commissions sufficient to facilitate such effort? When these issues are considered in concert with one another, the motivation to pursue the action is determined. The role of the manager of this pharmaceutical sales person is to try to influence all these perceptions.
151. You have been hired to replace a very unpopular manager of a marketing department. Department members were especially vocal about how unfair the previous manager was in conducting performance appraisals and allocating merit bonuses. What ideas do you have about being a fair person?
Being fair involves looking at a few key issues:
The prior manager may not have done so, but when distributing rewards, you must make sure you are paying attention to the different contribution levels of your employees. Not all employees contribute equally and to reward them all equally is to be unfair to those with greater participation.
That said, there are occasions when the nature of people’s contributions should be ignored and the rewards distributed equally. For example, when holding a luncheon to celebrate the attainment of a production goal, all employees should be invited, not just those most directly responsible for the production of the actual product.
You must also pay attention to how you actually make decisions. Though you are accountable for your decisions, you should not always make those decisions unilaterally. Talk to your employees and get some perspective by those who will be affected by the decisions.
Pay attention to how you talk to people. Use the old adage: Treat people as you yourself would like to be treated.
Justice is also in the eye of the beholder. Even though you may feel that you are being fair, everyone has different perceptions. Recognize that and accept it.
Finally, people care about how they are treated, but they also care about how others are treated.
With these thoughts in mind, you will have a head start on addressing the issues created by your predecessor.
152. Many firms are instituting wellness programs for their employees as a means to improve those employees’ health and well-being and lower healthcare premiums. Use the stages of organizational behavior modification to explain how to modify employee health in the workplace.
Stage 1: Identify the behavior to be modified. Overweight individuals, particularly those who are established as being clinically obese, represent real medical concerns both now and in the future. Identifying those individuals whose BMI (body mass index) suggest they are candidates for medical problems down the road is an important first step.
Stage 2: Measure the baseline level. A firm can decide to institute a wellness program whereby they publicize the opportunity to privately find out your BMI. Many firms institute a team competition to get department members to be measured. The department with the most individuals measured, for example, may get $5 gift cards to a local eatery.
Stage 3: Analyze its antecedents and outcomes: Once the BMI is assessed and the potential level of obesity in the firm determined, the firm can begin to determine the potential causes of the weight problem among its employees. Often the problem is a lack of exercise.
Stage 4: Intervene. If lack of activity is one contributing problem for the firm’s employees, a program addressing the issue can be created. Many firms are taking part in a walking program called “America on the Move.” The program distributes pedometers to all participants, and baseline numbers of steps in a daily routine are determined. Once that baseline is assessed, the firm attempts to encourage its employees to increase the number of steps daily. One goal might be to take 2,000 extra steps each day.
Stage 5: Evaluate and maintain. Teams are formed in departments of the firm to compete against one another as each individual and group attempts to reach the 2,000 steps per day goal. After a set time period, progress toward the goal is assessed and those teams and individuals achieving the goal are rewarded for their efforts. At one university instituting this program, goal achievers have their monthly insurance premiums reduced by an established formula for every month that goal is achieved. Clearly the overall effect is that employees become healthier and overall company healthcare premiums are reduced.
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